Chapter II: Mahound
Gibreel falls asleep and “dreams” the beginning of the other main plot of the novel, the story of Mahound, more or less closely based on the traditions surrounding Muhammad and the founding of Islam in the seventh century. It is this plot that resulted in the attacks on Rushdie by Muslim critics. We see Mahound surveying the city of Jahilia and are introduced to various significant locales. The period corresponds historically to the early days of Muhammad’s preaching in Mecca, where he was not widely accepted, and the Ka’ba was still filled with pagan idols, including those of the three goddesses who are the focus of the “satanic verses.” Mahound’s preaching has earned the hatred of the ruler of Jahilia, Abu Simbel, whose fortune is derived from worshippers at their temples. Abu Simbel, aware that Baal is his wife Hind’s lover, blackmails the poet Baal to satirize the Mahound and his companions.
But then he tries a more effective alternative to render the prophet harmless by offering him toleration if he in turn will acknowledge the three goddesses whose temples he and his wife receive their income from. Mahound horrifies his followers by seeming to be willing to deviate from his message of strict monotheism. He consults with the Angel Gibreel, who has up to this point been dictating holy scripture to him, and becomes convinced that the “satanic verses” quoted at the bottom of p. 114 [top of p. 117], acknowledging the three goddesses, should be proclaimed as inspired, though the narrator hints on p. 112 [114] that they have been inspired not by God, but by the devil.
Mahound’s decision produces an orgy of celebration which results in death for some, and he himself wakes up in Hind’s bedroom. Mahound realizes the “satanic verses” are indeed satanic, and goes to the Ka’ba to repudiate them. A fierce persecution of Mahound’s followers is unleashed, and he has to flee to Yathrib. Gibreel dreams that he is being attacked by the goddesses, for in his dream-role as the archangel/devil he has been responsible both for suggesting the verses and repudiating them.
One of the most
controversial topics in the Satanic Verses
“affair” is the question of the “satanic verses” themselves. The title of the
novel refers to an incident which is on the disputed terrain between fiction
and fact. The “satanic verses” are, in transliteration from Arabic, tilk
al-gharaniq al-’ula wa inna shafa’ata-hunna la-turtaja, and translate into English as “these are exalted
females whose intercession is to be desired” (Satanic
Verses p. 340). (Note on the translation of
these verses.) The verses comprising this sentence are
said to have been added to the 53rd sura of the Qur’an entitled Surat-annajm,
The Star (53:19ff)in order to acknowledge
the validity of the goddesses Lat, Manat, and ‘Uzza. The tradition goes on to
say that the verses were later withdrawn and denounced as “satanic.”
But the historicity of the incident is disputed by some of the early Muslim
historians, especially (Muhammad ben Yasar) Ibn Ishaq (d. 768 CE), (Muhammad
Abu ‘Abdullah Ibn Umar) al-Waqidi (747-822 CE), (Muhammad Ibn Muslim Ibn
Shihab) al-Zuhri (d.741 CE), Muhammad Ibn Sa’d (d. 845 CE), al-Tabari (c.
839-923 CE), Ibrahi. Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq’s editor, omits the passage, but it
is preserved as a quotation from al-Tabari, in Guillaume’s translation of Ibn
Ishaq (Ishaq 165-166. See Muir, pp.lxxix-lxxx).
Some Islamic and most non-Muslim Western commentators on the Qur’an have
accepted this story of Muhammad’s momentary acceptance of the verses; others
have repudiated it. But the prevailing Muslim view of what is called the “Gharaniq” incident is that it is a fabrication created by the
unbelievers of Mecca in the early days of Islam, and, Haykal comments,
afterwards the “story arrested the attention of the western Orientalists who
took it as true and repeated it ad nauseam.” (Haykal 105) The
main argument against the authenticity of the two verses in Haykal and
elsewhere is that “its incoherence is evident upon the least scrutiny. It
contradicts the infallibility of every prophet in conveying the message of His
Lord.” (Haykal 107) In other words, since
Muslims believe Muhammad to have faithfully reported God’s word, it is
surprising that Muslim scholars have accepted such a discreditable story, and
not at all surprising that it might have been invented by Islam’s enemies. In
his analysis of the passage, Haykal comes to the conclusion that “this story of
the goddesses is a fabrication and a forgery, authored by the enemies of Islam
after the first century of Hijrah” (Haykal
144). Zakaria Bashier shares this view, though he further argues that even if
the verses were to be regarded as being genuine, they would not impugn the
Prophet’s infallibility because they were in fact uttered by Satan. (Bashier 175). He also refers to similar
observations by al-Suhayili (see Bashier
173).
The argument that W.M. Watt, for his part, provides for the inarguable authenticity
of the verses is that “it is inconceivable that any Muslim would invent such a
story, and it is inconceivable that a Muslim scholar would accept such a story
from a non-Muslim.” (Watt xxxiv). Similarly,
in his highly controversial book Twenty-Three Years, the Iranian ‘Ali Dashti concludes that “the evidence
given in well-attested reports and in the interpretations of certain
commentators makes it likely that the incident occured.” (Dashti 32). As evidence
for the possibility of such a recitation and its subsequent withdrawal, the
following passage from the Qur’an is often cited: “And We did not send before
you any apostle or prophet, but when he desired, the Shaitan made a suggestion
respecting his desire; but Allah annuls that which is cast” (22:52). As the
suras of the Qur’an are traditionally not presented in chronological order (and
just what that order might be is generally under dispute), it could be possible
that this passage is referring to such a withdrawal.
The verses were perhaps first named “satanic verses’ by Sir William Muir, as
Ahsan notes (Ahsan 139, footnote 2). Later the
term was widely adopted, for example by Watt
in his book Muhammad at Mecca. Daniel Pipes
explains that as the term “satanic verses” does not occur anywhere else than in
Western Orientalists’ works, and states that Rushdie “unwittingly adopted a
part of the orientalist tradition.” (Pipes
116) Rushdie maintains that the term “comes from al-Tabari, one of the
canonical Islamic sources.” (Rushdie: “Choice
between Light and Dark“ 11)
Page 24
the incident of the Satanic verses in the early career of the Prophet
Page 114
The Star ... At this point, without any trace of hesitation or doubt, he
recites two further verses.
Have you
thought upon Lat and Uzza, and Manat, the third, the other?’ . . . ‘They are
the exalted birds, and their intercession is desired indeed.’
Page 123 the three winged creatures, looking like herons
or swans or just women
‘It was the Devil . . .’
Page 124
He stands in front of the statues . . .
After the repudiation of the Satanic verses . . .
Page 340
he would still speak, at nights, verses in Arabic . . .
Page 366
What finally finished Salman with Mahound: the question of the women; and of
the Satanic verses.
Page 368
I went on with my devilement, changing verses . . .
Page 373
Have you heard of Lat, and Manat, and Uzza . . .
There are allusions
in the London plot from time to time which connect the verses to Gibreel:
Page 285
it proved impossible to identify the verses
Page 445
the return of the little, satanic verses that made him mad
Page 459
What does a poet write? Verses. What jingle-jangles in Gibreel’s brain?
Verses. What broke his heart? Verses and again verses
Page 544
But I heard verses/You get me Spoono/V e r s e s
Note:
The transliteration is given without diacritical
marks. The translation in The Satanic Verses here is closest to the one in William Muir,
The Life of Mohammad from Original Sources 81). Another translation can be found in M. M. Ahsan: “These are the
high-soaring ones (deities) whose intercession is to be hoped for!” (Ahsan 132). Arabic variants appear on pp.132
& 141 of the same source, and there are variant transliterations in Muhammad Husayn Haykal, p.111.
Rushdie’s own most
extended discussion of this issue appears in his Critical Quarterly interview, pp. 59-62.
Karen Armstrong, in her Muhammad: A
Biography of the Prophet, speculates about
what truth might lurk behind this tale without necessarily alleging that
Muhammad recognized the three goddesses as in any way comparable to God
himself:
The gharaniq were probably Numidian cranes which were thought to
fly higher than any other bird. Muhammad, who may have believed in the
existence of the banat al-Llah as
he believed in the existence of angels and jinn, was giving the “goddesses” a delicate compliment,
without compromising his message. The gharaniq were not on the same level as al-Llah—not that
anybody had suggested that they were—but, hovering as it were between heaven
and earth, they could be valid intermediaries between God and man, like the
angels, whose intercession is approved in the very next section of Sura 53. The
Quraysh spread the good news throughout the city: “Muhammad has spoken of our
gods in splendid fashion. He alleged in what he recited that they are the
exalted gharaniq whose intercession is approved.
Page 91
[93]
How is “falling asleep” made literal in this opening paragraph?
lote-tree of the uttermost end that stands beneath the
Throne.
In Sura 53, verses 14-16 of the Qur’an,entitled “The Star,” It is said that a lote tree stands at the boundary
of the garden of paradise. According to W. M. Thackston, “This tree, said to
stand in the seventh heaven on the right hand of the Throne of God, is called al-muntaha, ‘of the limit,’ because it is the boundary beyond
which even the angels do not pass” (al-Kisa’i
347; see also Haykal 141-142). It is the
passage just following this into which the “satanic” verses are said to have
been inserted and then withdrawn.
[94]
revealing the spring of Zamzam to Hagar the Egyptian
Refers to a famous story according to which Muslims believe that Hagar (Arabic
Hajar), mother of all future Arabs, finds water in a well miraculously provided
by Gibreel (Cornwell 195). Her quest is
ritually reenacted by all those who go on the Hejira to Mecca, where the well
is now enclosed by the Haram, the
grand mosque. Her son Ismail (Ishmael)
is considered the ancestor of all Arabs. See above, p. 17. Discussion of Muslim
beliefs including this episode. Information
about Zamzam. (Side note: There is an Iranian brand of soda pop called “Zamzam.”)
the Jurhum filled up Zamzam with mud and golden gazelles
The Jurhum, a tribe of Arabs, a daughter of which had married Ismail (Ishmael),
filled the well of Zamzam in when they left Mecca. They had come to Mecca from
the Yaman, and settled there before Hajar and Ismail arrived. They became the
rulers of the temples and judges in Mecca. But it is said that they became “high-handed
and made lawful what was taboo;” and other tribes rose against them and cast
them out of the city, sending them into exile. Before they left, one of the
Jurhum brought out two carved gazelles of the Ka’ba and the corner-stone, threw
them into Zamzam, and covered the well over. Generations later, the tribe of
the Quraysh gained control of the Ka’ba, and it was to one of them, ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib
b. Hashim, who had responsibility for watering and feeding the pilgrims, that
the vision came ordering him to dig up Zamzam. He was the grandfather of
Muhammad. Speaking symbolically, the filling in of the well stands as part of
the slide into ignorance (Jahiliya) and polytheism by the Meccans; along with
the introduction of idols into the Ka’ba. (David
Windsor). See Haykal, pp. 33 & 38.
Page 92
Muttalib of the scarlet tents
Muhammad’s grandfather’s name Abdul Muttalib. He like his father, was a
merchant.. What is the reference to the scarlet
tents? and the silver hair? Muhammad’s
family tree.
I’ve had my bloody chips
British slang for to be finished, done for.
Cone Mountain
Note the pun on Alleluia Cone’s name. Plays a role in the novel similar to to
Mount Hira where Muhammad received his first revelation (Netton: Text 27). For more on Mount Hira,
see Haykal, pp. 70, 406.
Allahgod
The word for God in Arabic is “Allah.”
homosap
Homo sapiens (“wise human”) considered as a “sap” (fool).
Freedom, the old antiquest.
Pun on “Anti-Christ;” suggests that religion opposes freedom.
[95]
harpy
Vicious winged creatures in
Greek mythology, implements of vengeance, most unangelic; but here the pun is
on “harp,” the instrument traditionally played by angels.
What is said about the will versus submission in the last paragraph on this page?
Page 93
The businessman
Muhammed. The description that follows resembles the description of The Prophet
in Haykal, p. 63.
opobalsam trees
These trees produce myrrh. Latin name Myroxylon samum.
Jahilia
A term used by Muslims to refer to the period of history preceding the
revelation of the Qur’anto
Muhammad, meaning “ignorance,” or “barbarism.” Commonly used as a term of
contempt today meaning “unislamic” (Easterman
34). Rushdie uses it as a name for Mecca or Makkah.
Mahomet
A common misspelling of Muhammad’s name in Europe from the Middle Ages through
the 19th century.
farangis
Foreigners, Europeans (Hindi).
whigs, tories, Blacks
Each of these is a term originally used by its enemies to denigrate the
designated group, but later adopted with pride by that very group. Compare Yankee, originally a British term of contempt for Americans.
Mahound
See note on Mahound, above, in Introduction.
What is your reaction to Rushdie’s explanation for choosing this name for his prophetic character?
Hijaz
The area in which Mecca is located.
Page 94
[97]
Zamzam
See note above, on p. 91 [94].
House of the Black Stone
The Kaaba, the temple enclosing the al-hadjar al-aswad,
the mysterious rock said to have fallen from heaven, the center of Muslim
worship in Mecca, a focus of religious observances from before Islamic times. Pictures of the Kaaba.
Given the fact that most Middle-Eastern cities introduce pools and fountains wherever they can, what do you think is the significance of the symbolism of a city made of sand which abhors water?
Page 95
Khalid Khalid ibn al-Walid (d. 642) was converted to Islam in the year before Muhammad conquered Mecca and became early Islam’s most famous military leader apart from the Prophet himself. He is referred to again on p. 381 [385] as “General Khalid.”
Shark
See note in Introduction. Rushdie is stressing
the appropriateness of the name for a tribe of businessmen.
Ismail
The Qur’anic spelling for character called Ishmael in the Bible. Gibreel was
partly named after him. See note on “Ismail,” above, p.
17.
He moves in mysterious ways.
Alluding to the first lines of the Olney Hymn no. 35, “Light
Shining Out of Darkness“ by William Cowper (1731-1800): “God moves in a
mysterious way / His wonders to perform.”
first Safa then Marwah
Two mounds between which pilgrims to Mecca still run in imitation of Hagar.
Arabia Odorifera
Latin for “fragrant Arabia.” The region was associated with spices in ancient
and medieval times and it was said that one could smell them in the air. See,
for instance, Rabanus Maurus’s De rerum naturis, Book 19: on aromatic herbs and trees in the Middle
East (842-846).
balsam, cassia, cinnamon, frankincense, myrrh
Fragrant substances; it is probably not a coincidence that the last two were
often described as being given to the Christ child by the Magi.
Page 96 [98]
Monophysite
The belief that Christ had only one nature. More on Monophysites.
Nabataean
An ancient Arabian
people; but the term is used in Arabic to label Syrian and Iraqi Aramaeans.
Basra
In southeastern Iraq. Information
on Basra.
hashish
See above, note on p. 76 [78].
afeem
Opium.
Page 98
[100]
Anatolian slaves
Anatolia (modern Turkey) was a source of slaves from ancient times. Anatolia Throughout the Ages.
[99]
a series of rough circles
According to Rushdie, this feature of Jahilia is modelled on Delhi (“In Good Faith“ 409).
Page 97
onager
A wild ass (Equus hemionus) of
southwestern Asia. More about
Onagers.
[100]
the satirist
Muhammad was much troubled by satirical poets who attacked him and had one,
named Ka’b, assassinated (Armstrong 185).
Baal.
Originally the name of a
Middle Eastern sky-god worshipped by the original inhabitants of Israel,
much denounced but occasionally worshipped by Jews. In the Bible his worship is
fiercely denounced, and his name eventually became synonymous with “Devil.” He
is also often referred to as “Baalzebul” (“Lord of Lords”), although these were
evidently originally separate gods. More on Baalzebub.
Why do you think Rushdie has chosen this as the name of his satirist?
Page 99
[101]
Hubal . . . Kain
The Arabic spellings of “Abel” and “Cain.”
Amalekites
A Semitic people who figure as enemies of the Israelites in the Bible, and
whose descent are traced from Esau. See Exodus 17:8-16, I Samuel 15:1-33.
Arabic scholars identify them with the ancient Arab tribe of Abulfeda, ruling
for a long period over Mecca. More information on the
Amalekites.
Uzza . . . Manat . . . Al-Lat . . .
Not only were these three pre-Islamic goddesses worshipped in Mecca, but at
temples of their own in, respectively Taif, Qudayd, and Naklah. More
information about the goddesses and their worship.
Page 101
[103]
Bilal
Bilal b. Rabah, was a freed Abyssinian slave and appointed by Muhammad as his
first muezzin (Netton: Text, p. 28).
See note on “Bilal X”, below, p. 207 [213].
some sort of bum from Persia by the outlandish name of
Salman
Salman al-Farisi was an early Persian convert to Islam, but this is also a sly
reference to the author’s first name (Netton: Text,
p. 28). David Windsor adds, “he was one of the actual companions of the Prophet
(though not one of the scribes of the Recitation, as he is in the novel) and is
credited with the idea of digging the trench (in the battle that gets it name
from it) which defeated the Meccan cavalry. (See Haykal
303 and Armstrong 203).
Why does Abu Simbel oppose Mahound so fiercely?
Page 102
[104]
They stretched him out in the fairground with a boulder on his chest.
See note above on p. 43.
What does Abu Simbel mean by his answer to the question, “What kind of idea am I?”
manticore
See “manticorps,” below, p. 361 [373].
Page 103
[105]
Zafar
A city in Yemen, founded in the 13th century. Rushdie undoubtedly mentioned
this city partly because its name is also that of his son by his first wife,
and to whom Haroun and the Sea of Stories is dedicated.
Sheba
The kingdom also known as Saba, in southern Arabia, considered by many scholars
to be the Biblical Sheba.
Yathrib
The original name of Medina before Muhammad moved there in 622, the second most
sacred city of Islam, object of the Hejira or Hijrah.
Midian
The area bordering the Gulf of Aqaba opposite the Sinai Peninsula.
Aqabah
Or Aqaba, the port city at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba.
Petra
Ancient city in southwest Jordan, capital of the Nabataeans.
Palmyra
Ancient city in Central Syria, northeast of Damascus. Legend says it was built
by Solomon. Although the Bible does not indicate that Solomon and Sheba were
lovers, legend linked them romantically. Information about
Palmyra. Photos of
Palmyra.
[106]
gangs of young Sharks
The Tribe of Mahound (see above, Introduction)
but very likely also a reference to the Puerto Rican gang called “The Sharks”
in Leonard Bernstein’s West Side Story, which, like this novel, has a theme of interracial strife. More information on West Side
Story.
Page 104
[106]
Ablutions
Muslims must ceremoniously wash certain parts of their body before prayers.
[107]
Hamza
The name of the uncle of the historical Muhammad. (See Netton: Dictionaryp. 95.)
Page 105
[107]
When you come down from Coney there’s a brightness on you.
Compare with the Biblical tradition that when Moses descended from Mount Ararat
after receiving the Law from God, his face shone (Exodus 34:35).
[108]
There is no god but God.
The central statement of faith of Islam, the qalmah: “La ilaha ilallah! La ilaha!” A fuller translation
is: “There is no God but God, the God”.
Page 108
[110]
pee oh vee
POV: point of view.
steadicam
A camera on an ingenious mechanical mounting that allows it to compensate for
the movements of the person carrying it, so that a hand-held shot looks steady.
bazooms
Old-fashioned slang for “bosoms.”
[111]
travelling mat
A special effect in film which allows the insertion of a person into a scene
where he/she has actually never been.
Page 109
bhaenchud
Literally means “one who sleeps with his sister;” but used very commonly as a
very insulting expletive like “fucking” (Hindi, Urdu).
Page 110
[112]
flew me to Jerusalem
Refers to a miraculous journey taken by Muhammad, the ‘isra (“Night Flight”).
See Armstrong pp. 138-142. More information on the ‘isra.
Page 111
[113]
Allah Ishvar God
Listing in order Muslim, Hindu and Christian terms for the deity.
What do you think the repeated refrain “What kind of an idea are you/am I” is meant to indicate? Keep track of the various uses to which this phrase is put throuhgout the novel.
Page 112
[114]
epileptic fit
In some early Western commentaries on Islam, Mumhammad’s visions were ascribed
to epileptic fits (Kuortti).
Page 113
[116]
that famous Grecian profile . . .
Compare with the description of Ayesha below, p. 206 [212].
kahin
Muhammad was accused of being a seer or kahin (Arabic) by the inhabitants of Mecca early in his
career, one of several accusations against him made previous to his recognition
as the Prophet (Götje. 9, Bader 69). When the
angel Gibreel first ordered Muhammad to recite, he protested that he could not,
that he was not a kahin (Armstrong 46).
Page 114
The Star
Each sura, or chapter in the Qur’an has
a title, in this case “The Star” (Sura 53). The added verses are, of course,
the “Satanic” verses of the title, and there is indeed a rather obscure Muslim
tradition which tells how these verses were at first included, then rejected. Detailed discussion of the “satanic verses”. See also above,
p. 24, and below, p. 123 [125-126]. See also Haykal,
pp. 105-114.
Note the seeming results of Mahound’s new “revelation” on the following pages and discuss them.
Page 115
[117]
Allahu Akbar
“God is Great,” part of the traditional Islamic call to prayer (Arabic). More about Islamic prayer.
Page 117
[119]
gryphons
Monsters combining the forequarters of eagles and the hindquarters of lions.
Also spelled “Griffins.” More
about gryphons.
salamanders
Because salamanders were often found basking in the still-warm ashes of extinct
fires they were thought to be able to live in flames and were attributed all
sorts of miraculous properties.
rocs
The roc was the gigantic bird that carried off Sinbad in The Thousand
and One Nights.
amphisbaenae
Two-headed serpents of Greek myth.
Assyrian Sphinx
The Assyrian figures of winged bulls with bearded human heads have sometimes
been called by this name by analogy with the Egyptian sphinx, which has the body
of a lion and head of a man. Pictures
of Assyrian bulls.
Djinns
See note above, on p. 22.
houris
Beautiful, virginal maidens provided for the pleasure of the saved (men) in the
Muslim paradise (Arabic). See Introduction.
Page 118
[121]
Isa . . . Maryam
Jesus and Mary. Jesus is a miraculously born prophet of God in Islam, but not God’s son.
Page 120
[122]
simurgh
In Persian mythology, a gigantic bird. Rushdie called his first novel Grimus, a near-anagram of “simurgh.”
hippogriffs
Mythical monster combining the forequarters of a griffin and the hindquarters
of a horse. See above, note on “gryphon,” on p. 117
[119].
[123]
He knows I take lovers
According to tradition, Hind, the wife of Abu Sufyan (after whom Abu Simbel is
patterned), had many lovers (Haykal 319).
Page 123
[125]
wrestling match with the Archangel Gibreel
Refers to Jacob’s wrestling match with an angel (or God himself, depending on
how you read Genesis 32:24-32). An article on this story.
[126]
Why does the narrator say “it was me both times”? What is the significance of this statement?
Page 124
[127]
These are but names you have dreamed of, you and your fathers. Allah
vests no authority in them.’
Verses from the chapter called “The Star“ in the Qur’an.
Page 125
Submission
“Islam” literally means “submission.”
Yathrib
See note above, on p. 103 [127].